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Sociological Theories of Crime

Author: Sophia

what's covered

In this lesson, you will learn about some of the different sociological theories of crime and the factors that result in criminal behavior. Specifically, this lesson will cover the following:

1. Overview of Sociological Theories of Crime

1. Overview of Sociological Theories of Crime

Sociological theories of crime aim to understand the social factors that contribute to criminal behavior. They emphasize the impact of social structures, institutions, and interactions on an individual’s likelihood of engaging in criminal activities.

Sociological theories of crime help us understand more about a variety of topics.

EXAMPLE

They help us learn why some drug use is stigmatized while other use is not, why crime is over- or underrepresented across social groups, and what alternatives may exist to the individualistic punishment models that have dominated the criminal justice system since the 19th century.

Many of the theories we cover in this lesson hold Western assumptions about the nature of crime and punishment. Nevertheless, by exploring crime in relation to social dynamics, we open the door to new possibilities for dealing with crime in a diverse society.

Some of the primary sociological theories that you will learn about in more depth in this unit include social disorganization, strain, and social process theories.

1a. Social Norms

Social norms are shared expectations or rules about appropriate behavior in a specific social group or culture. These norms guide individuals in their interactions with others and help maintain social order.

Social norms can cover a wide range of behaviors:

Manners
Dress codes
Language usage
Other aspects of social conduct

Similarly, violating social norms involves behaving in a way that goes against the established expectations and rules of a particular society or group. People may engage in this behavior for various reasons, such as challenging societal norms, seeking attention, or expressing dissent. It is crucial to note that violating social norms is not necessarily criminal.

EXAMPLE

Libraries are generally quiet spaces where people go to study or read in peace. Speaking loudly in such an environment would violate the social norm of maintaining silence in a library.

Sociological theories highlight the relationship between societal structures, individual experiences, and the development of deviant behavior. It is important to recognize that violating social norms, which we will discuss in the next lesson, is often associated with these sociological theories of crime, which seek to understand the root causes and consequences of deviant behavior.

term to know

Social Norms

The shared expectations or rules about appropriate behavior in a specific social group or culture.

1b. Social Disorganization Theory

The first sociological theory of crime that we’ll discuss is social disorganization theory. This theory is a sociological perspective that seeks to understand the relationship between the ecology of a community and its levels of crime and deviance. Developed primarily by sociologists Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay in the early 20th century in Chicago, this theory suggests that crime and delinquency are more likely to occur in socially disorganized communities.

This theory looks at neighborhood factors that contribute to social disorganization, such as the following:

Poverty
Residential instability
Ethnic heterogeneity
A lack of community organizations

Overall, social disorganization theory posits that crime and deviance are not solely a result of individual characteristics but are strongly influenced by the social and structural characteristics of the community in which individuals live. The theory has been influential in shaping policies aimed at addressing crime and social issues at the community level.

term to know

Social Disorganization Theory

A sociological perspective that seeks to understand the relationship between the ecology of a community and its levels of crime and deviance.

1c. Strain Theories

You will also learn more about anomie and strain theories, which are concepts within the field of criminology that aim to explain deviant behavior and crime. Anomie, a term introduced by French sociologist Émile Durkheim, refers to a state of normlessness or a breakdown of social norms. Anomie suggests that deviant behavior occurs when there is a disconnect between societal goals (i.e., society’s expectations to become successful) and the legitimate means (i.e., working hard) available to achieve those goals (Siegel, 2018).

Strain theory, developed by Robert Merton, expands upon Durkheim’s ideas about anomie and posits that deviance results from the strain individuals experience when they are unable to achieve societal goals through conventional means. When there is a disconnect between culturally prescribed goals and the means available, individuals may experience strain, leading to deviant behavior. Merton identified different responses to strain (e.g., conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion; Siegel, 2018), which you will learn about in a future lesson. Each adaptation represents a different way individuals cope with societal expectations.

General strain theory (GST) is a criminological theory developed by Robert Agnew in the early 1990s. It seeks to expand upon strain theory by examining criminal behavior and focusing on the role of strain in an individual’s life (Siegel, 2018). According to GST, individuals are more likely to engage in criminal activities when they experience certain types of strain, and this strain results from the inability to achieve positively valued goals. We will discuss the different types of strain in an upcoming lesson.

big idea

Anomie and strain theories focus on the relationship between societal goals, institutionalized means, and deviant behavior. Anomie emphasizes the breakdown of social norms, while strain theory emphasizes the strain individuals experience when societal goals are unattainable through legitimate means. These theories provide valuable insights into the root causes of deviance and crime in society.

terms to know

Anomie

A state of normlessness or a breakdown of social norms.

Strain Theory

A criminological theory that aims to explain the relationship between social structure, social values or goals, and crime.

General Strain Theory

A theory that posits that crime and delinquency are caused by the presence of negative emotions, resulting from an array of strains.

1d. Social Process Theories

Lastly, you will learn about another type of sociological theory: Social process theories focus on the social interactions and processes that lead individuals to engage in criminal behavior. These theories attempt to understand how socialization, peer influence, and societal factors contribute to the development of criminal conduct. There are several social process theories, including social learning theory, social control theory, and labeling theory.

Social learning theory posits that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others. People acquire criminal attitudes, values, and techniques through communication with family, friends, and peers (Siegel, 2018). Essentially, this theory suggests that crime is a learned behavior, like many other behaviors that we learn.

Social control theory was developed by Travis Hirschi, and it focuses on the factors that prevent people from engaging in criminal behavior. This theory assumes that social bonds (e.g., attachment to others and involvement in conventional activities) and relationships play a crucial role in preventing individuals from breaking the law (Siegel, 2018). The stronger these bonds, the less likely an individual is to engage in criminal behavior.

Labeling theory is associated with sociologists Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert and argues that societal reactions to individuals can influence their behavior. When people are labeled as “deviant” or “criminal,” they may internalize these labels and develop a self-fulfilling prophecy, leading them to engage in further criminal behavior. This label remains with them, and they continue to act as such.

big idea

All these social process theories highlight the importance of social interactions, relationships, and societal influences in shaping individuals’ attitudes and behaviors.

terms to know

Social Process Theories

Theories that focus on the social interactions and processes that lead individuals to engage in criminal behavior.

Social Learning Theory

A theory proposing that new behaviors, including crime, can be acquired by observing and imitating others.

Social Control Theory

A theory proposing that the process of socialization and social learning builds self-control and reduces the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as antisocial.

Labeling Theory

A theory suggesting that self-identity and the behavior of individuals may be determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them.

summary

In this lesson, you received an overview of sociological theories of crime. Sociological theories of crime examine the social factors that play a role in criminal behavior. They look at the influence of social structures, institutions, and interactions on an individual’s likelihood of engaging in criminal activities.

First, you learned that social norms are shared expectations or rules about appropriate behavior in a specific social group or culture. Violating social norms involves behaving in a way that goes against the established expectations and rules of a particular society or group and is often associated with sociological theories of crime. Next, you learned that there are several sociological theories of crime, which we will discuss in further depth throughout this course. Social disorganization theory is a sociological perspective that seeks to understand the relationship between the ecology of a community and its levels of crime and deviance.

You were then introduced to strain theories. Anomie is a state of normlessness or a breakdown of social norms. It suggests that deviant behavior occurs when there is a disjunction between societal goals and the legitimate means available to achieve those goals. Strain theory suggests that deviance results from the strain individuals experience when they are unable to achieve societal goals through conventional means. When there is a disconnect between the goals and the means, people may experience strain, leading to deviant behavior. Furthermore, general strain theory expands upon strain theory by examining criminal behavior and focusing on the role of strain in an individual’s life.

Finally, you were introduced to social process theories, which focus on the social interactions and processes that lead individuals to engage in criminal behavior. Social learning theory suggests that crime is a learned behavior, just like any other behavior people are taught. Social control theory suggests that people are naturally inclined to engage in crime, but if they have social bonds and attachments, they will be less likely to engage in criminal behavior. Labeling theory suggests that people who engage in deviance are labeled as such. They, then, begin to see themselves as this prescribed label, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy, whereby they continue to engage in deviance and crime.

In the next lesson, we will look deeper into social norms and violations of these norms.

Source: THIS TUTORIAL HAS BEEN ADAPTED FROM KWANTLEN POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY’S “INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY.” ACCESS FOR FREE AT: kpu.pressbooks.pub/introcrim/ . LICENSE: CREATIVE COMMONS ATTRIBUTION 4.0 INTERNATIONAL.

REFERENCES

Siegel, L. J. (2018). Criminology: Theories, patterns, and typologies (13th ed.). Cengage.

Terms to Know

Anomie: A state of normlessness or a breakdown of social norms.
General Strain Theory: A theory that posits that crime and delinquency are caused by the presence of negative emotions, resulting from an array of strains.
Labeling Theory: A theory suggesting that self-identity and the behavior of individuals may be determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or classify them.
Social Control Theory: A theory proposing that the process of socialization and social learning builds self-control and reduces the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as antisocial.
Social Disorganization Theory: A sociological perspective that seeks to understand the relationship between the ecology of a community and its levels of crime and deviance.
Social Learning Theory: A theory proposing that new behaviors, including crime, can be acquired by observing and imitating others.
Social Norms: The shared expectations or rules about appropriate behavior in a specific social group or culture.
Social Process Theories: Theories that focus on the social interactions and processes that lead individuals to engage in criminal behavior.
Strain Theory: A criminological theory that aims to explain the relationship between social structure, social values or goals, and crime.