Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood

1. Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood

The time between a child’s 2nd and 6th birthdays is full of new social experiences. At the beginning of this stage, a child selfishly engages in the world—the goal is to please the self. As the child gets older, they realize that relationships build on give-and-take. They start to learn to empathize with others. They learn to make friends. Learning to navigate the social sphere is difficult, but children do it readily.

Children internalize parental rules and begin to feel guilt when they break rules. Their self-concept is also developing at this stage and is heavily influenced by interactions with their parents and the culture in which they live. Self-esteem also becomes more developed, as children in this stage usually evaluate themselves very positively and have unrealistic views of their abilities. Young children’s perspective on their skills is related to their cognitive development and secure attachment with caregivers.

IN CONTEXT

While the child is learning about their place in various relationships, they are also developing an understanding of emotions. A 2-year-old does not have a good grasp on their emotions, but by the time a child is 6, they understand their emotions better. They also understand how to control their emotions (also known as self-regulation)—even to the point that they may put on a different emotion than they are actually feeling. Further, by the time a child is 6 years old, they understand that other people have emotions and that all of the emotions involved in a situation (theirs and other people’s) should be considered. That said, although the 6-year-old understands these things, they are not always good at putting the knowledge into action. We will examine some of these issues in this lesson.

2. Social Development: The Importance of Play

The development of play is an important milestone in early childhood. Play holds a crucial role in providing a safe, caring, protective, confidential, and containing space where children can recreate themselves and their experiences through an exploratory process (Winnicott, 1942; Erikson, 1963). During this stage, pretend play is a great way for children to express their thoughts, emotions, fears, and anxieties.

2a. Sociodramatic Play

One type of pretend play is sociodramatic play, where children imitate adults and take on adult roles and activities, like playing house or doctor. Vygotsky saw sociodramatic play as fuel for cognitive, social, and emotional development, and research confirmed it, showing sociodramatic play predicted better self-regulation in 3- and 4-year-olds (Elias & Berk, 2002).

term to know

Sociodramatic Play

Where children imitate adults and take on adult roles and activities, like playing house or doctor.

2b. Rough and Tumble Play

Another important type of pretend play is rough and tumble play, or play fighting, wrestling, and chasing. Commonly seen in rats, monkeys, and other mammals, rough and tumble play is believed to be an evolutionary adaptation that helps build the social brain (Pellis & Pellis, 2007). It’s more frequent and rougher among boys and is associated with social competence in humans. Rough and tumble play is different from real fighting, as the participants are often laughing and taking care not to harm each other. It helps children learn restraint and impulse control.

Early childhood play can be understood by observing the elements of fantasy, organization, and comfort. Fantasy, the process of make-believe, is an essential behavior the child engages in during pretend play; organization helps the child to structure pretend play into a story and to utilize cause-and-effect thinking; and comfort is used to assess the ease and pleasure in the engagement in play (Salcuni, Di Riso, Mabilia, & Lis, 2017).

terms to know

Rough and Tumble Play

Play fighting, wrestling, and chasing.

Fantasy

The process of make-believe.

3. Stages of Play

As children progress through the stage of early childhood, they also progress through several stages of nonsocial and social play. Stages of play is a theory and classification of participation in play developed by Mildred Parten Newhall in 1929. Newhall observed American children at free play and recognized six different types of play:

• Unoccupied play, when the child is not playing, just observing. A child may be standing in one spot or performing random movements.
• Solitary (independent) play, when the child is alone and maintains focus on their activity. Such a child is uninterested in or is unaware of what others are doing. More common in young children (age 2-3) as opposed to older ones.
• Onlooker play, when the child watches others at play but does not engage in it. The child may engage in forms of social interaction, such as conversation about the play, without actually joining in the activity. This type of activity is also more common in younger children.
• Parallel play (adjacent play), when the child plays separately from others but close to them and mimicking their actions. This type of play is seen as a transitory stage from a socially immature, solitary and onlooker type of play, to a more socially mature, associative and cooperative type of play.
• Associative play, when the child is interested in the people playing but not in coordinating their activities with those people, or when there is no organized activity at all. There is a substantial amount of interaction involved, but the activities are not in sync.
• Cooperative play, when a child is interested both in the people playing and in the activity they are doing. In cooperative play, the activity is organized, and participants have assigned roles. There is also increased self-identification with a group, and a group identity may emerge. This is more common toward the end of the early childhood stage. Examples would be dramatic play activities with roles, like playing school, or a game with rules, such as freeze tag.

key concept

Children diagnosed with autism do not fully develop the aforementioned stages of play, or they may do so in a different manner in comparison to their typically developing peers (Mastrangelo, 2009). These children may already have social, communication, motor, and/or other developmental delays; therefore, the play experience is also somewhat different for them. For example, autistic children display difficulties in initiating as well as sustaining play. Part of this can be attributed to the lack of eye contact and socially withdrawing from their peers, which can further lead to repetitive play or play that is self-stimulatory in nature (Schleien, 1990).

terms to know

Unoccupied Play

When the child is not playing, just observing.

Solitary (Independent) Play

When the child is alone and maintains focus on their activity.

Onlooker Play

When the child watches others at play but does not engage in it.

Parallel Play (Adjacent Play)

When the child plays separately from others but close to them and mimicking their actions.

Associative Play

When the child is interested in the people playing but not in coordinating their activities with those people, or when there is no organized activity at all.

Cooperative Play

When a child is interested both in the people playing and in the activity they are doing.

4. Erikson’s Theory: Initiative vs. Guilt

While Erik Erikson was very influenced by Freud, he believed that the relationships that people have, not psychosexual stages, are what influence personality development. At the beginning of early childhood, the child is still in the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage (stage 2).

By age three, however, the child begins stage 3, which is initiative versus guilt. The trust and autonomy of previous stages develop into a desire to take initiative or to think of ideas and initiate action. Children are curious at this age and start to ask questions so that they can learn about the world. Parents should try to answer those questions without making the child feel like a burden or implying that the child’s question is not worth asking.

IN CONTEXT

These children are also beginning to use their imagination (remember what we learned when we discussed Piaget!). Children may want to build a fort with cushions from the living room couch, open a lemonade stand in the driveway, or make a zoo with their stuffed animals and issue tickets to those who want to come. Another way that children may express autonomy is in wanting to get themselves ready for bed without any assistance. To reinforce taking initiative, caregivers should offer praise for the child’s efforts and avoid being overly critical of messes or mistakes. Soggy washrags and toothpaste left in the sink pale in comparison to the smiling face of a 5-year-old emerging from the bathroom with clean teeth and pajamas!

That said, it is important that the parent does their best to kindly guide the child to the right actions. Remember that according to Freud and Kohlberg, children are developing a sense of morality during this time. Erikson agrees. If the child does leave those soggy washrags in the sink, then have the child help clean them up. It is possible that the child will not be happy with helping to clean, and the child may even become aggressive or angry, but it is important to remember that the child is still learning how to navigate their world. They are trying to build a sense of autonomy, and they may not react well when they are asked to do something that they had not planned. Parents should be aware of this, and try to be understanding, but also firm.

big idea

Guilt for a situation where a child did not do their best allows a child to understand their responsibilities and helps the child learn to exercise self-control (remember the marshmallow test). The goal is to find a balance between initiative and guilt, not a free-for-all where the parent allows the child to do anything they want to. The parent must guide the child if they are to have a successful resolution in this stage.

5. Emotional Development

One of the most important milestones in early childhood is the development of emotional regulation. As the prefrontal cortex (PFC) matures and pathways between the PFC and the amygdala (emotion center of the brain) become myelinated, children improve in their ability to control when and how their emotions are expressed (Martin & Ochsner, 2016). The PFC is one of the last brain regions to fully develop, and as such, children need explicit coaching and practice with emotional regulation at this age.

In young children, we often hear the term emotional self-regulation, which is the ability of the child to manage their own emotions and behaviors. The first step in learning how to self-regulate is to build emotional intelligence, or the ability to identify, label, express, and manage one’s emotions.

think about it

Imagine a child who is about to go to kindergarten at a new school. They may be overwhelmed with so many feelings. But what are these feelings? Why is it that the child is starting to feel nauseous and wants to cry at the same time?

Bridges and Grolnick (1995) highlight two important processes of emotional self-regulation:

• Emotional responsiveness: This refers to the ability to regulate the experience of many emotions as well as their expression. For example, some children may start experiencing anxiety at the thought of going to school the night before, whereas others may do so the morning of. Individual variation across children is expected because we all experience emotions at different times, intensities, etc.
• Utilization of strategy: This is the manner in which an individual addresses their emotions. In other words, how does the child regulate the experience of anxiety noted in the preschool example above? This may include a variety of techniques including, but not limited to, meditation, playing with play dough, listening to calming music, self-soothing, hugging a parent or sitting in their lap, and much more.

IN CONTEXT

The National Center for Children in Poverty (NCCP) released a brief on socioemotional development during the early childhood years (Cooper, Masi, & Vick, 2009). The aim of this brief was to promote overall health, well-being, and economic security for low-income families and children in the United States. In the context of young children’s social-emotional needs, between 9.5% and 14.2% of children (birth to 5 years old) display socioemotional issues that further impact their school, overall functioning, and developmental outcomes (Brauner & Stephens, 2006). Moreover, an estimated 9% of children who receive mental health services in the United States are 6 years old or younger (Warner & Pottick, 2006). It is therefore imperative to understand and address how socioenvironmental factors can impact emotional and behavioral outcomes during the early years so that early intervention can take place to promote emotional well-being in children and offset any developmental delays in this area.

terms to know

Emotional Self-Regulation

The ability of the child to manage their own emotions and behaviors.

Emotional Intelligence

The ability to identify, label, express, and manage one’s emotions.

Emotional Responsiveness

The ability to regulate the experience of many emotions as well as their expression.

Utilization of Strategy

The manner in which an individual addresses their emotions.

REFERENCES

Winnicott, D. W. 1942. “Why Children Play.” In The Child, the Family and the Outside World, 143–146. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Elias, C. L., & Berk, L. E. (2002). Self-regulation in young children: Is there a role for sociodramatic play?. Early childhood research quarterly, 17(2), 216-238.

Pellis, S. M., & Pellis, V. C. (2007). Rough-and-tumble play and the development of the social brain. Current directions in psychological science, 16(2), 95-98.

Salcuni, S., Di Riso, D., Mabilia, D., & Lis, A. (2017). Psychotherapy with a 3-year-old child: the role of play in the unfolding process. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 2021.

Warner, L. A., & Pottick, K. J. (2006). Functional impairment among preschoolers using mental health services. Children and Youth Services Review, 28(5), 473-486.

Brauner, C. B., & Stephens, C. B. (2006). Estimating the prevalence of early childhood serious emotional/behavioral disorders: Challenges and recommendations. Public health reports, 121(3), 303-310.

Cooper, J. L., Masi, R., & Vick, J. (2009). Social-emotional development in early childhood: What every policymaker should know.

Bridges, L. J., & Grolnick, W. S. (1995). The development of emotional self-regulation in infancy and early childhood. Social development, 15, 185-211.

Martin, R. E., & Ochsner, K. N. (2016). The neuroscience of emotion regulation development: Implications for education. Current opinion in behavioral sciences, 10, 142-148.

Schleien, S. J., Rynders, J. E., Mustonen, T., & Fox, A. (1990). Effects of social play activities on the play behavior of children with autism. Journal of Leisure Research, 22(4), 317-328.

Mastrangelo, S. (2009). Play and the child with autism spectrum disorder: From possibilities to practice. International journal of play therapy, 18(1), 13-30.