Leadership Theory Over Time

1. Leadership as a Discipline

In the last challenge we described perspectives on leadership from different cultures and eras. In the next two challenges we will take a more academic approach to leadership as a concept. That is, the rise of leadership studies as a discipline beginning in the 1800s.

Leadership emerged as a distinct academic discipline primarily in the 20th century, though its roots trace back to ancient philosophical inquiries about governance and human influence. Early studies often focused on the "Great Man" theory, suggesting leaders possessed specific traits from birth. However, this perspective evolved significantly after the 1940s, with researchers shifting to behavioral theories, examining what leaders do, and then to situational and contingency theories, recognizing that effective leadership depends on the context.

Leadership Studies is an interdisciplinary concept that includes management, sociology, psychology, education, history, and philosophy to prepare people for leadership positions. It draws inspiration, insight, and wisdom from many fields of study. Remember, leadership, at its core, involves guiding and inspiring others toward a shared goal, but can be viewed from many perspectives, including those of academic disciplines. Leadership for a psychologist might be viewed through the study of the mind, while a sociologist might view it through the study of groups, communities, and cultures.

The guiding questions for leadership studies include:

1. How do we know if a person will be a good leader?
2. How can we prepare people to be effective leaders?
3. How can we assess leaders on their performance?

The popular concept of evolution is “becoming better over time,” but a more accurate definition of its original, biological meaning is “adapting to the environment.” This is the view we should take of leadership theory – it has changed over time because the world has changed, and as an applied science it needed to adapt to the world around it. However, it is fair to say that the understanding of leadership has deepened over time, since the modern views on leadership are more nuanced and complex than they were 200 years ago.

term to know

Leadership Studies

An interdisciplinary concept that includes management, sociology, psychology, education, history, and philosophy to answer key questions about preparing people for leadership positions.

2. History and Ideas of Leadership

2a. Nation-Building and Hero Worship

As you will learn in the next tutorial, the first book on leadership is considered by many to be On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic by Scottish historian Thomas Carlyle. The inspiration for the book was Napoleon, the military leader of the French revolution who later became emperor. In Napoleon’s era (and for many centuries preceding it), leadership was associated with national power and identity. These powers were believed to be innate, or present at birth – a kind of genius that was often inherited through families of royalty. You either had it, or you didn’t. In short, in a world that believed in a divine spark and fate, there was little thought to “training” people to lead; the belief was that they would lead because it was their destiny.

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You might consider for how long people viewed leadership as an inherent quality present at birth. This perspective frequently connected leadership to royal lineage, suggesting that the ability to rule was passed down through families, not acquired through experience or learning.

EXAMPLE

The reign of King Louis XIV of France, known as the "Sun King," perfectly illustrates this belief. His contemporaries and Louis himself believed his authority stemmed from a divine right, an innate gift from God that made him a natural leader. His power was seen as an intrinsic part of his being, a genius inherited through his royal bloodline. This perception meant that his leadership was accepted as legitimate simply because of who he was born to be, rather than what he had achieved. He was thus able to live a life of extreme luxury and excess, and a symbol for the French Revolution to fight against after his reign. You can see how this idea, that leadership is a birthright, shaped the political landscape and the understanding of power for centuries.

2b. The Self-Made Man

In the United States of America, leadership both followed and challenged the traditions of Europe. America rejected royalty and the idea of inheritance, but in making a military general the first president they showed the same associations of leadership with military success and national identity. The key difference was the idea that anyone (at the time, meaning any white man) could grow up to be president; the ideology of “the self-made man” is a large part of the American identity. For this reason, the ideal of a leader became a person with a “rags to riches” story.

For generations, American culture has celebrated a particular type of leader: the self-made individual who achieves success through sheer determination and hard work.

did you know

The ideal of the self-made man was powerfully shaped by the Horatio Alger stories, a series of popular 19th-century young adult novels about boys working their way out of poverty.

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Between 1867 and 1899, Horatio Alger Jr. penned over 100 influential books about impoverished boys, like Ragged Dick, who achieved respectability and a comfortable life through diligence and honesty. These narratives, selling millions, cemented the ideal of the "self-made man" in American folklore. They promoted the idea that anyone, regardless of background, could succeed through hard work and good character, without inherited wealth. These stories were incredibly influential, selling millions of copies and becoming a cornerstone of American folklore. This concept became deeply ingrained in the American psyche, promoting the idea that anyone, regardless of their origins, could achieve greatness if they simply worked hard enough and stayed out of trouble.

This Horatio Alger myth profoundly impacted American individualism, championing personal responsibility and individual achievement. It fueled optimism and ambition, encouraging self-improvement. The self-made man became an aspirational hero, fostering hero-worship and influencing perceptions of success and leadership, focusing on individual triumph rather than collective effort.

Like their predecessors, people of this era were unlikely to think of leadership as an exclusive set of skills that people could learn, but the notions of who could become a leader changed.

EXAMPLE

Perhaps America’s most famous leader is Abraham Lincoln. A controversial figure in his time, Lincoln was president during the Civil War and led the Union forces to quash the rebellion, keeping the country together and ending the cruel practice of slavery. Lincoln also epitomized the “self-made man,” as he rose from humble beginnings and was largely self-taught.

2c. 1940s-1950s: The Science of Leadership

The idea of trait theory persisted until the early 20th Century, when, along with industrialization, science began to expand into new territories, including organizational behavior and industrial psychology—both aimed at applying the principles of psychology to the workplace. This was borne not only out of the economic imperative to maximize efficiency and reap profits, but by the cold war with the Soviet Union, a long period where there was no military conflict but both countries tried to prove that their way was best by dominance in every realm: education, science, space exploration, and even sports.

EXAMPLE

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President John F. Kennedy exemplified the new style of leadership, particularly during the Cuban Missile Crisis. In October of 1962, the Soviet Union deployed nuclear missiles to their ally, Cuba, presenting an apparent threat to the United States. However, most believed a military confrontation would lead to war. Kennedy navigated extreme pressure, communicated with both allies and adversaries, and ultimately averted nuclear war. It showcased how effective leadership in a high-stakes, uncertain environment demanded not just charisma, but also calculated decision-making and a nuanced understanding of international dynamics. He consulted experts in the Pentagon and former president Eisenhower as he weighed his options. This period highlighted the importance of a leader's ability to remain calm under pressure, analyze complex information, and make high-consequence decisions. It also showcase a new style of leadership that was more situational and collaborative.

2d. 1960s-1970s: Social Revolution

The views of leadership, like society in general, continued to change throughout the 20th Century. The Civil Rights movement and Women’s Rights movement challenged the traditional hierarchies, not only who was at the top, but how they ruled, and whether one person should have so much power.

The leadership theories that followed expanded the idea of behavioral theories by judging that leadership wasn’t just a set of behaviors or actions with measurable outcomes, but changed from context to context. People in leadership studies took a more holistic view of organizations and leadership in context of the whole, and how organizations function in an environment.

EXAMPLE

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César Chávez, a revolutionary leader in the 1970s, was deeply committed to empowering America's marginalized farm workers. As co-founder of the United Farm Workers (UFW), he championed nonviolent resistance, inspired by Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr., to achieve social and economic justice. His methods included organizing strikes, such as the impactful Delano grape strike, and national boycotts that pressured growers for better wages and working conditions. Through his unwavering dedication, personal sacrifice (including hunger strikes), and ability to mobilize a broad coalition of support from students, unions, consumers and religious groups, Chávez transformed the farm labor movement. He made significant strides in improving the lives of agricultural laborers in the United States.

2e. Late 20th Century to Early 21st Century: The Leader as Servant

Leadership has continued to transform into the 21st Century, and one force that continued to challenge the traditional notion of leadership is social media. By giving a collective voice to women, people of color, and previously voiceless low-level employees, social media led to increased visibility and accountability for executives. Some previously revered leaders, like Harvy Weinstein of Miramax, were not only outed after transgressions became public, but imprisoned. Leaders are now expected to care for all stakeholders – not just shareholders, but staff, customers, and anyone impacted by their business. The ideal leader builds relationships and nurtures a positive work environment. In short, the leader can be seen as servant to the company and all its stakeholders. Of course leaders of big businesses are still powerful, and well compensated, but their roles, and the ideals they strive to live up to, have changed dramatically.

EXAMPLE

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Satya Nadella, CEO of Microsoft, exemplifies modern servant leadership. He shifted Microsoft's culture from internal competition to empathy, collaboration, and a growth mindset, prioritizing the development and well-being of his employees. His leadership focuses on empowering individuals and teams, developing a supportive environment where everyone can thrive, which has contributed to the company's renewed success (Naik, 2024).

As you will see in the next tutorial, Thomas Carlyle wrote that “the history of the world is but the biography of great men.” However, we could reverse this and say that the biographies of great leaders are but a study of history. Each era defines what leaders should do and what “greatness” means, and then selects the people who can rise to the occasion.

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