Labeling Theory

1. Symbolic Interactionism

Another approach to studying crime and deviance is through labeling theory. Before we dive into this theory, it is important to know that its roots can be found in the work of George Herbert Mead (1934/2015), who pioneered a new way of studying social reality known as symbolic interactionism. He explains that we construct our social world and our sense of self through the symbols we exchange—language being the most significant form of symbolic communication.

According to Mead, symbols are objects, words, gestures, or any other elements that carry meaning. They are not inherently meaningful, but their significance comes from the shared understanding that the people in a society attribute to them.

EXAMPLE

A red traffic light is a symbol for stopping, while a wedding ring is a symbol for marriage.

The core of symbolic interactionism is the idea that people act based on the meanings that they attribute to symbols. These meanings are not fixed or universal; rather, they are socially constructed and can vary between individuals and groups.

In other words, people engage in a continuous process of interpreting symbols and adjusting their behavior based on the meanings that they perceive in social situations. These interactions occur in various settings, such as families, schools, workplaces, and communities (Mead, 1934/2015).

The theory also addresses the development of self and identity. According to Mead’s ideas, people acquire a sense of self through a process called “the looking-glass self,” where they imagine how others perceive them. This self-perception influences their behavior and contributes to the ongoing construction of their identity.

term to know

Symbolic Interactionism

A theoretical approach that can be used to explain how societies and/or social groups come to view behaviors as deviant or conventional.

2. Labeling Theory

Mead’s approach to studying social life set the stage for new ways of thinking about crime and deviance. One approach, which came to be known as labeling theory, was formulated by the sociologist Howard Becker in the 1960s. Rather than looking at the qualities or circumstances that make a person turn “bad,” Becker (1963) asks how this definition of bad behavior was originally constructed.

Labeling theory focuses on societal reactions to deviant behavior rather than the behavior itself. Becker’s theory suggests that societal reactions, particularly the labels applied to individuals, play a crucial role in the development of deviant identities. Moreover, Becker argues that deviance is not an inherent quality of an act but rather a social construct. Acts are thus labeled as deviant by society based on the reactions and perceptions of those in power (Siegel, 2018).

Becker also discusses the role of moral entrepreneurs, who are individuals or groups that seek to influence the societal definition of deviance to label certain behaviors as deviant. Moral entrepreneurs try to shape which acts and individuals are labeled as criminal.

It is important to note that labels can be positive or negative:

• Labels such as “smart” or “hardworking” suggest that someone is competent (Siegel, 2018). This type of label is assumed to set someone up for success, because without even meeting these people, we assume that they are successful.
• On the other hand, we also have negative labels. People who have run-ins with the authorities or school officials are often given the label of “troublemaker,” which can stigmatize and define them. They are assumed to be dangerous, unstable, or violent.

Labels can thus have adverse impacts on those who are labeled.

IN CONTEXT

When a young person is labeled a “troublemaker” by a teacher or police officer, they can easily be harmed by the label. The degree to which the student is considered a troublemaker may affect how they are treated at home or school:

• The child may not be allowed to play with their siblings, because they are considered a bad influence.
• Teachers may move these children to classes reserved for students with behavioral problems.

Worse yet, if a student receives a label as the result of a criminal offense, the label will follow them for a long time. There is a stigma from having a criminal record, and it is difficult to erase this stigma.

Additionally, negatively labeled people begin to see themselves as the label they are given by society. Once someone believes that others view them as a troublemaker or a criminal, they assume the role that the label signifies. They often become more committed to a deviant career and may turn to similarly stigmatized individuals for companionship and support. By associating with other people who have adopted similar attitudes and behaviors, individuals are at further risk for committing crimes, as well as being victimized (Siegel, 2018).

Lastly, if someone has a criminal conviction, they are often labeled an “ex-con.” This label assumes that the person is dangerous, aggressive, or dishonest. However, not everyone with a conviction meets these assumptions, nor do these descriptions capture their totality as a person. Once someone has a label, society often sees the person’s entire identity as that one label, and it is difficult for that person to separate themselves from the label.

terms to know

Labeling Theory

A theory that suggests that people’s behavior is influenced by the labels attached to them by society.

Moral Entrepreneur

An individual or group who seeks to influence the societal definition of deviance and create or change rules to label certain behaviors as deviant.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

An expectation, belief, or label that can influence one’s behaviors, thus causing the belief to come true.

REFERENCES

Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance. Free Press.

Mead, G. H. (2015). Mind, self & society: The definitive edition (C. W. Morris, Ed.). University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1934)

Siegel, L. J. (2018). Criminology: Theories, patterns, and typologies (13th ed.). Cengage.

Tannenbaum, F. (1938). Crime and the community. Columbia University Press.