Flexibility and Mobility Exercises

1. Types of Stretching

As you read about in the lesson titled “Principles of Flexibility and Mobility,” flexibility is included in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, though research is mixed on the role and benefits of improving flexibility. To make choices on what type of flexibility movements are best for you, it’s important to understand the basic types of stretching, as well as other types of movement that can enhance flexibility and mobility.

1a. Static Stretching

Static stretching places slow and constant tension on the muscle by lengthening it to the point of mild tension and holding the stretch (Peck et al., 2014). Static stretching is the type of stretching described in the Physical Activity Guidelines with the recommendation to stretch all major muscle groups and to hold the stretch for 10–30 seconds. You learned about the sit-and-reach test as a flexibility assessment, where holding that reach at mild tension for a duration of time would be an example of a static stretch.

The reason that static stretching can increase your flexibility comes down to the Golgi tendon organ, which is a type of stretch receptor found in tendons and joint capsules (Feher, 2012). Golgi tendon organs are part of the nervous system and sense the amount of tension in a muscle (Martin, 2017). When a muscle is lengthened, such as in a static stretch, the Golgi tendon organ signals the muscle to relax. If not for the Golgi tendon organ, your muscles would stay tight and contracted during stretching, making stretches less effective.

terms to know

Static Stretching

A type of stretching that places slow and constant tension on the muscle by lengthening it to the point of mild tension and holding the stretch.

Golgi Tendon Organ

A type of stretch receptor found in tendons and joint capsules; it senses the amount of tension in a muscle.

1b. Dynamic Stretching

The stretches in dynamic stretching are not held motionless but instead involve active movements to create length in muscles (Peck et al., 2014). Arm circles, leg swings, and even bodyweight movements such as squats or lunges are all types of dynamic stretches. Dynamic stretches are typically done before physical activity, rather than after, and use movements that will mimic the exercises that will be performed (Edwards, 2012).

EXAMPLE

In sports, dynamic stretches are often part of the warmup to help athletes take their muscles through the ranges of motion and movement patterns they will use. A golfer may do dynamic stretches that include rotation at the spine, like a lunge with a twist, since a golf swing requires rotation. A sprinter might include walking knee hugs, alternating hugging one knee to chest while walking, since the hips will need the full range of motion to generate the most force.

term to know

Dynamic Stretching

A type of stretching where the stretches involve active movements to create length in muscles, rather than being held motionless.

1c. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

A third type of stretching is called proprioceptive muscular facilitation (PNF), which involves cycles of active contractions of muscles, then relaxation of those muscles during the stretch. While both PNF stretching and static stretching are held relatively motionless, static stretching is passive and does not use active muscle contraction. Some research shows that PNF improves the range of motion more effectively than static stretching but is reported as more uncomfortable (Hayward & Gibson, 2014).

step by step

Because PNF requires active muscle contraction, it works most effectively if the muscles being stretched can push against something, such as a wall, stretching band, or using another person’s assistance. In the image below, a man is performing a lying hamstring stretch using a band. A static stretch would involve just holding the leg at the point of mild tension. However, a PNF stretch would have the following steps (Edwards, 2012):

1. Perform a passive stretch to the point of mild tension for 10 seconds (just like a static stretch).
2. Then, isometrically contract the muscle group being stretched—in this case, the hamstrings—for 6 seconds. The man using the band in the image below would resist the opposing force of the hamstrings by keeping the band pulled tight.
3. Next, relax the muscle group into a passive stretch again and hold for 30 seconds, where a greater range of motion should now occur.

The type of PNF described here only involves contracting the agonist, or the muscle to be stretched. However, there are multiple subtypes of PNF stretching, where another type involves contracting the antagonist muscle as well. For that type, the man pictured in the image would contract the hamstring antagonist (the quadriceps) during the 30-second final stretch. You’ve learned that muscles work in agonist/antagonist pairs, so contracting the opposing group (the antagonist) allows the agonist to further lengthen.

term to know

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

A type of stretching that involves cycles of active contractions of muscles and then relaxation of the muscles during the stretch.

2. Considerations for Stretching

Not all types of stretches are ideal for all exercise situations. In general, dynamic stretching is most effective before a workout or sport, and it’s better to do static stretching or PNF stretching after activity. This is because muscles that have been held in lengthened positions tend to generate less power and force. Therefore, static stretching—especially in activities requiring speed, strength, and power—can negatively affect performance when done before the activity (Garber et al., 2011).

IN CONTEXT

An analysis of over 62 articles on stretching’s effect on performance found that dynamic stretching done before exercise improved activities requiring agility, speed, strength, and power. Static stretching done before these types of exercise tended to have no effect, or negative effects, such as slower sprint times, reduced golf accuracy, and less weight lifted in 1-rep max efforts (Peck et al., 2014).

Another consideration for stretching effectively and safely is to avoid ballistic stretching, which uses repeated bouncing movements (Edwards, 2012).

EXAMPLE

A ballistic hamstring stretch could involve someone bending down and bouncing repeatedly to try and reach further down toward their toes.

Earlier in this lesson, you learned about the Golgi tendon organ, which senses the amount of tension in a muscle and signals the muscle to relax when slowly stretched. The muscle spindle reflex is also a type of stretch receptor but is most responsive to the speed of movement (Hayward & Gibson, 2014). When you stretch a muscle in a quick, bouncing manner, the muscle spindle reflex causes the muscle to contract further, becoming more resistant to stretching (Hayward & Gibson, 2014). This muscle contraction can increase the risk of injury, such as muscle strains or muscle tears. While ballistic stretching can be safe and useful in some contexts, such as athletes who require extreme ranges of motion, this type of stretching is not typically the first choice in an exercise program.

A third consideration for stretching is that muscles should be warm before they are stretched. If you picture a ball of clay that has sat outside in the cold, immediately trying to stretch it would probably cause it to break or snap. Instead, warming the clay would give you the best chance of stretching it. Your muscles can be compared to this analogy where stretching them cold, without warming up, puts you at higher risk for injuries like muscle strains. You’ll learn further about the components of a warm-up in the next lesson, but overall, muscles need to be warm with adequate blood flow before stretching. Even if the temperature around you is warm and your muscles are not physically cold, your stretches will be more effective if you first do some continuous movement that elevates your heart rate slightly. Depending on the nature of your workout or sport, this can typically be accomplished with a few minutes of dynamic movements or cardiovascular activity.

watch

terms to know

Ballistic Stretching

A type of stretch that uses repeated bouncing movements.

Muscle Spindle Reflex

A type of stretch receptor found in tendons and joint capsules, it is most responsive to the speed of movement.

3. Modalities to Enhance Flexibility and Mobility

Besides types of stretching, there are some specific forms of exercise or movements that can also enhance flexibility and mobility. It’s important to incorporate different stretching positions for the same muscle groups, as this stretches the muscle in different planes of motion and different tension lengths (Hayward & Gibson, 2014). No muscle group has a single best stretch that is most effective, so incorporating other modalities can all provide variety. This also promotes progression per the FITT principle (with the T for Type) by choosing different types of flexibility and mobility movements.

3a. Self-Myofascial Release (SMR)

Self-myofascial release (SMR) is a type of technique that typically uses a tool (such as a foam roller or small ball) to apply pressure to muscle and fascia (Beardsley & Škarabot, 2015). Fascia is a structural component that holds your muscles together and is mostly made of collagen (Parisi & Allen, 2019). If you think about peeling open a citrus fruit, the white membrane that holds the slices together is like the fascia holding your muscle fibers together. Fascia can get matted and bunched up over time, whether through repetitive movement patterns, sedentary lifestyles, injuries, or other factors. Self-myofascial release helps to align the fascia and release muscle tension. Your fascia provides compression and elasticity for your muscles to produce force, so the premise with SMR is that it can facilitate more effective movement over time (Parisi & Allen, 2019). Research is mixed on the benefits of self-myofascial release, but reviews of multiple studies found that SMR does tend to improve flexibility (Beardsley & Škarabot, 2015) and enhance recovery by reducing fatigue after workouts (Healey et al., 2011).

term to know

Self-Myofascial Release (SMR)

A type of technique to enhance flexibility and mobility that typically uses a tool to apply pressure to muscles and fascia.

3b. Yoga

There are many types of yoga ranging from very slow-moving and therapeutic, to faster-paced and athletic. Regardless of the type, yoga poses promote movement through full ranges of motion, which enhances flexibility (Sharma et al., 2015). One study on previously sedentary adults found that doing a 55-minute yoga class, 3 days a week, for 8 weeks resulted in overall average flexibility increasing by 35% (Boehde et al., 2005). Another study on college athletes found that 10 weeks of yoga twice a week provided significant gains in flexibility and balance compared to a group of college athletes who did not perform yoga (Polsgrove et al., 2016).

3c. Pilates

Pilates is a modality where every movement has both a stretching and a strengthening component. In addition, Pilates movements have a particular focus on proper body alignment and initiating movements from the core musculature (termed “the Powerhouse” in Pilates). Pilates can be done with just bodyweight movements on a mat or with props like small balls, or with movements on specialized machines led by a Pilates instructor. Like yoga, Pilates can also range from gentle and rehabilitative to more challenging and highly skilled. However, unlike yoga, Pilates movements are typically more dynamic and are not held for extended lengths of time. One study used two groups to compare Pilates to static stretching, where each group did 60 minutes of exercise twice a week for 3 months. The group that did Pilates had more flexibility improvements in some muscle groups (de Oliviera et al., 2016).

IN CONTEXT

Both yoga and Pilates are considered forms of mind-body exercise, which is characterized by movement paired with breath and focused attention (Zhang et al., 2021). Besides yoga and Pilates, other types of mind-body exercise include tai chi and qigong, which both focus on pairing breath practices with slow, graceful movements (Wang et al., 2017).

Mind-body exercise is different from cardiovascular exercise or resistance training as it is slower in pace and lower in intensity (Zhang et al., 2021). However, mind-body exercise still has a variety of health benefits. For instance, doing mind-body exercises can lower the body’s stress response, benefiting the nervous system and bolstering the immune system (Eichenberger-Archer, 2008). Research also has found that mind-body exercise improves cognitive functions of the brain (such as memory and attention) to a greater extent than cardiovascular or resistance training exercise (Blomstrand et al., 2023).

term to know

Mind-Body Exercise

A form of exercise that is characterized by movement paired with breath and focused attention, such as yoga, Pilates, tai chi, or qigong.

REFERENCES

Beardsley, C., & Škarabot, J. (2015). Effects of self-myofascial release: a systematic review. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 19(4), 747-758. doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2015.08.007

Boehde, D. D., Porcari, J. P., Greany, J., Udermann, B., Johanson, D., & Foster, C. (2005). The physiological effects of 8 weeks of yoga training. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation and Prevention, 25(5), 290. doi.org/10.1097/00008483-200509000-00016

Blomstrand, P., Tesan, D., Nylander, E. M., & Ramstrand, N. (2023). Mind body exercise improves cognitive function more than aerobic-and resistance exercise in healthy adults aged 55 years and older–an umbrella review. European Review of Aging and Physical Activity, 20(1), 15. doi.org/10.1186/s11556-023-00325-4

de Oliveira, L. C., de Oliveira, R. G., & de Almeida Pires-Oliveira, D. A. (2016). Comparison between static stretching and the Pilates method on the flexibility of older women. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 20(4), 800-806. doi.org/10.1016/j.jbmt.2016.01.008

Edwards, M. (2012). Types of stretching. American Council on Exercise. www.acefitness.org/fitness-certifications/ace-answers/exam-preparation-blog/2966/types-of-stretching/

Eichenberger-Archer, S. (2008). What is mind-body exercise? IDEA Health & Fitness Association. www.ideafit.com/personal-training/what-is-mind-body-exercise/

Feher, J. (2012). Quantitative human physiology: an introduction. Elsevier: Academic Press. ISBN: 9780123821638

Garber, C. E., Blissmer, B., Deschenes, M. R., Franklin, B. A., Lamonte, M. J., Lee, I. M., ... & Swain, D. P. (2011). Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults: guidance for prescribing exercise. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 43(7), 1334-1359. doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e318213fefb

Hayward, V.H., & Gibson, A.L. (2014). Advanced Fitness Assessment and Exercise Prescription. Illinois: Human Kinetics. ISBN: 9781450466004

Healey, K., Dorfman, L., Riebe, D., Blanpied, P., & Hatfield, D. (2011). The effects of foam rolling on myofascial release and performance. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 25, S30-S31. doi.org/10.1097/01.jsc.0000395625.08079.28

Kloubec, J. A. (2010). Pilates for improvement of muscle endurance, flexibility, balance, and posture. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 24(3), 661-667. doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181c277a6

Parisi, B. & Allen, J. (2019). Fascia training: a whole-system approach. [Independently]. ISBN: 9781794564657

Peck, E., Chomko, G., Gaz, D. V., & Farrell, A. M. (2014). The effects of stretching on performance. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 13(3), 179-185. doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000052

Polsgrove, M. J., Eggleston, B. M., & Lockyer, R. J. (2016). Impact of 10-weeks of yoga practice on flexibility and balance of college athletes. International Journal of Yoga, 9(1), 27–34. doi.org/10.4103/0973-6131.171710

Sharma, L. (2015). Benefits of yoga in sports–A study. Int J Phys Educ Sports Health, 1(3), 30-32. www.kheljournal.com/archives/2015/vol1issue3/PartA/29.1.pdf

Wang, Y. T., Huang, G., Duke, G., & Yang, Y. (2017). Tai Chi, yoga, and qigong as mind-body exercises. Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine, 2017. doi.org/10.1155/2017/8763915

Zhang, X., Zong, B., Zhao, W., & Li, L. (2021). Effects of mind-body exercise on brain structure and function: A systematic review on MRI studies. Brain Sciences, 11(2), 205. doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020205