Cultural Differences

1. What Is Culture?

The final topic we will discuss in this challenge is the role of culture and cultural diversity as it pertains to organizational behavior and the concepts we’ve addressed so far in the unit, such as values and personality. Cultural competence is part of diversity in that it refers to overarching beliefs, values, behaviors, and norms for groups, including racial groups, religious groups, disabled people, and LGBTQ+ people. But how does culture impact organizational behavior? We will take a look at that topic in this challenge.

Culture may be defined as the shared characteristics which distinguish the members of one human group from another. A cultural trait is:

• Something that is shared by all or most of the members of a group
• Something older members of a group attempt to pass along to younger members
• Something that shapes the view of the world for people in the group.

These characteristics include symbols, language, norms, and rituals. Obviously, these exist when describing a national or regional culture, but even within a workplace, there is often a vocabulary, habits, and traditions that characterize the organization.

As we discussed earlier, there are workplace cultures that can be described in various ways, such as clan culture or hierarchical culture. But within the workplace, we usually see employees who are from many different cultural backgrounds, and bring different frames of reference, traditions, and so forth. Many businesses also span national boundaries and involve people with very different values when it comes to work. As the marketplace and economies of the world merge ever closer, it is increasingly important that we come to understand more about cultural variations as they affect our world. So, when we talk about cultural influence on organizational behavior, we are talking about a complex interaction between several cultures.

Culture affects the workplace because it affects what we do and how we behave. As shown in the model below, cultural variations influence our values, which in turn affect attitudes and, ultimately, behaviors. For instance, some cultures (like Japan and South Korea) are associated with a hard work ethic. This work ethic would be reflected in positive attitudes toward work and the workplace; people would feel that hard work is satisfying and beneficial—they might feel committed to their employer, and they might feel shame if they do not work long hours. This, in turn, would lead to actual high levels of work. This behavior, then, would serve to reinforce the culture and its value, and so on.

To see how this works, consider the results of a survey of managerial behavior by French researcher Andre Laurent. He asked managers how important it was for managers to have precise answers when asked a question by subordinates. Nearly 80% of workers in Japan answered that the manager should know the answer, while only 10% of workers in Sweden answered the same way. Both cultures are regarded as efficient and reliable workers, but their attitudes differ greatly on what that means.

The results show how culture can influence very specific managerial behavior. In some countries, it is imperative for the managers to “know” the answer (even when they really don't), whereas in other countries, it makes little difference. Thus, if we want to understand why someone does something in the workplace, at least part of the behavior may be influenced by their cultural background.

think about it

Do you agree or disagree with the statement that managers should always know the answer when a subordinate asks a work-related question? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each attitude?

The belief that a manager must know the answer to any potential question puts more emphasis on training managers to be knowledgeable of all aspects of the organization. This, of course, would mean that the managers are more effective and instill more confidence in their subordinates. On the other hand, a manager in such a culture might try to save face by guessing at answers they don’t know, which could lead to serious problems. A culture that is more tolerant of imperfection is less likely to put a manager in such a situation but could also mean managers don’t bother to master the knowledge and skills they need to pass on to subordinates.

term to know

Culture

The shared characteristics which distinguish the members of one human group from another.

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2. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Dimensions of Culture

There are several ways to distinguish different cultures from one another. Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck, researchers at Harvard University, identified dimensions that are helpful in understanding such differences. These are as follows (Weil, n.d.). The applications of these dimensions are in the right column. The cultural dimensions will not project how managers are likely to behave (depending on their own culture), but how they are likely to be effective (depending on the culture where they work).

Dimension	Meaning	Organizational Application/Example
How people view humanity	Are people basically good, or are they evil? Can most people be trusted or not? Are most people honest? What is the true nature of humankind?	In a culture that believes people are basically evil and must be taught to be good, when someone calls in sick, a manager is likely to ask for proof, such as a note from their doctor. In a culture that has a belief that people are basically good, there is likely to be trust that the person is being honest and needs the time off.
How people see nature	What is the proper relationship between people and the environment? Should people be in harmony with nature, or should they attempt to control or harness nature?	In a culture that tries to control nature, executives may not care very much about pollution, and therefore not make reduction of their carbon footprint a priority. In a culture that harmonizes with culture, there will be more effort to mitigate environmental damage.
How people approach interpersonal relationships	Should one stress individualism or membership in a group? Is the person more or less important than the group? What is the “pecking order” in a society? Is it based on seniority or on wealth and power?	A manager in a culture that stresses group membership and seniority as the natural source of authority may look at hierarchy as an important means of keeping control and not want subordinates “going over their head.” In a culture that values individualism, such a breach may be overlooked or even respected as showing initiative.
How people view activity and achievement	Which is a more worthy goal: activity (getting somewhere) or simply being (staying where one is)?	A manager in a culture that values “doing” over “being” is likely to value and reward outcomes over effort. A culture that values “being” is more likely to consider effort, improvement, and personal contributions to the organization.
How people view time	Should one focus on the past, the present, or the future? Some cultures are said to be living in the past, whereas others are looking to the future.	If a manager’s culture is more focused on the future, they might let go of the past easier and focus on growth and doing better for the future. If a manager’s culture is more past-oriented, they are likely to value traditions over innovation.
How people view space	How should physical space be used in our lives? Should we live communally or separately? Should important people be physically separated from others? Should important meetings be held privately or in public?	A manager from a culture that values space and community might prefer an open concept office rather than separate offices for everyone. In a culture that values personal space, each employee will have their own workstation, even if it means creating a “cubicle farm.”

A manager working in a different culture from the one in which they were raised will need to consider how effective their managerial style is to the new culture. For example, a manager from a highly individualistic culture like the U.S. may find their usual motivational style of promoting competition is ineffective, even upsetting, in a group-oriented culture like a Latin American organization.

While different cultures will have a tendency to be lower or higher on these scales, keep in mind that these tendencies can change and even impact other dimensions. For example, while the United States is and has always been more invested in the future than the past, this tendency is now transforming culture into one that is more engaged with the natural world.

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3. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

Another theorist that describes culture is Geert Hofstede. He developed a list of six cultural dimensions that can help predict how people will act, based on culture, in different situations. It is important to remember, though, many other factors impact how we react and how we see the world, including our personality, which we addressed earlier. His dimensions include power index, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term versus short-term orientation, and indulgence versus restraint.

Cultural Dimension	Description
Power Index	How much acceptance there is in society between people who have power and people that don’t. For example, if a country has a high power index, it means they are more accepting of people having power, and more “ok” with unequal distribution of power. Countries with a low power index tend to have flatter organizations, and people look at themselves as equals rather than “reporting” to a boss.
Individualism vs. Collectivism	The extent to which people wish to be acknowledged for their own personal traits and abilities as opposed to their community. In organizational behavior, this is important because a culture with more of a collectivist culture would be embarrassed if you, as a manager, called them out personally in front of others for doing a good job—they’d likely prefer you to compliment the group.
The Masculine vs. Feminine	The roles of male and female in society. It can also refer to what personality traits are considered good based on traditional male and female roles. For example, in a feminine society, there may be more work-life balance and collaboration, where a masculine society might focus more on “winning.”
Uncertainty Avoidance	How well people cope with the unknown. Countries that score high in uncertainty avoidance may attempt to make life predictable and controllable. In these societies, it is expected and normal to show emotion. In a low uncertainty avoidance society, people are more ok with change, openness, and innovation.
Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation	The time horizon people in a society are focused on. We see that many societies that span centuries have more of a long-term orientation, in that they think ahead and plan for the future, while societies like the United States are focused on short-term and quick results.
Restraint vs. Indulgence	A high score in this area means individuals focus on gratification and pleasure. A lower score emphasizes the suppression of doing things that are gratifying, and the social norms in these societies are more strict.

Let’s look at some examples of behaviors we might see in the workplace based on these cultural dimensions.

Cultural Dimensions*	U.S.	China	Australia
More vs. Less Power Distance	80	40	38
Collectivism vs. Individualism	91	20	90
Masculine vs. Feminine	62	66	61
More vs. Less Uncertainty Avoidance	46	30	51
Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation	26	87	21
Restraint vs. Indulgence	68	24	71
*Each score represents the degree the second item is favored over the first on a scale of 1-100.

So, what do all of these numbers mean?

• Power Distance Index (PDI): The higher the PDI score on the scale of 100, the more accepting a society is of unequal hierarchical distribution of power.
• Collectivism vs. Individualism (IDV): On a scale of 100, the lower the IDV score, the more important maintaining harmony is to that culture (collectivism), and the higher the score, the more important being individualistic is to that culture.
• Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS): The higher the score on a scale of 100, the more masculine traits are valued, and the lower the score, the more feminine traits are valued.
• Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI): A low UAI score on a scale of 100 indicates that people are more relaxed and open, and a higher score indicates acceptance of being expressive, and the more people feel they are in control of their life.
• Short-Term vs. Long-Term Orientation (PRA): On a scale of 1-100, the lower the score, the more the short-term orientation, and the higher the score, the more the long-term orientation.
• Indulgence vs. Restraint (IVR): On a scale of 1-100, the higher the score, the more indulgence, focus on personal happiness, and optimism. The lower the score, the more controlled and rigid behavior.

As you can see, the United States is more accepting of unequal power in society as compared to China or Australia. The United States and Australia are both more individualistic societies, while China is more collective. All three countries rank about the same, toward a more masculine orientation. This orientation may mean these countries are more competitive than other countries with lower scores. In terms of uncertainty avoidance, Australia ranks higher, in that they try to make life more predictable. In short- versus long-term orientation, China most definitely has a long-term orientation, while both the United States and Australia are more focused on the short term. A higher score for Australia and the United States on indulgence versus restraint shows the culture is focused on happiness, whereas China is focused on more controlled, rigid behavior.

Of course, this all ties back to earlier discussions on personality, values, and ethics because the cultural tendencies of where people grew up is an important factor in organizational behavior.

learn more

Hofstede passed away in 2020, but his family still maintains his website that features videos of his lectures and interactive elements to better understand his work on cultural understanding.

reflect

What role do managers play to ensure that the cultures of individuals are valued and appreciated and contribute to a successful work environment?

REFERENCES

Weil, N. (n.d.). Beliefs, Values, and Cultural Universals. Excerpted from Speaking of Culture. uen.pressbooks.pub/speakingofculture/chapter/chapter-6-a-closer-look-at-values/