Comparing and Contrasting Existing Criminological Theories

1. A Recap of Criminological Perspectives

Now that you have learned many of the primary criminological perspectives and theories, it is time to review how the field has evolved over time. Remember, criminologists investigate the origins of crime, with some focusing on the following:

• Individual factors include decision-making, psychology, and biology.
• A psychological perspective sees crime as linked to personality, development, or social learning.
• Social factors, such as neighborhood conditions, poverty, socialization, and group dynamics, are believed to influence criminal behavior. This perspective argues that people are shaped by their environment, and those in disadvantaged conditions are more likely to turn to crime.
• Crime can result from economic inequality, where the wealthy benefit at the expense of the working class. Economic disparity leads to class conflict, which can manifest in violence and crime. According to this view, crime is more a product of class struggle than individual shortcomings or societal conditions.

Let’s look at a summary of some ideas you have learned from these different perspectives.

1a. Classical Criminology

In the mid-1700s, social thinkers began advocating for a more rational approach to punishment, emphasizing a balanced and fair relationship between crime and punishment. This shift can be attributed to Cesare Beccaria, an Italian scholar who was among the first to explain why people commit crimes systematically (Cadoppi, 2015). Beccaria argued that individuals act in their self-interest, seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. People commit crimes when they believe the benefits outweigh the risks of punishment.

According to this view, to deter crime effectively, punishment should be sufficient—neither too lenient nor too severe. Excessive punishment could lead criminals to commit more serious crimes, while lenient measures would fail to discourage criminal behavior.

EXAMPLE

If rape were punishable by death, rapists might be more likely to kill their victims to avoid detection, as the punishment for murder would be the same (Siegel, 2023).

Beccaria’s ideas laid the foundation for classical criminology, which suggested that individuals can choose criminal or lawful paths to solve problems or meet their needs. He posited that crime is appealing when it offers substantial benefits with minimal effort and that fear of punishment can deter criminal behavior.

1b. Positivist Criminology

In the 19th century, a new worldview emerged that challenged classical theory and offered a fresh perspective on the causes of crime, influenced by the rise of the scientific method in Europe and North America.

Positivism emphasized the use of the scientific method in research, arguing that research is objective, universal, and independent of cultural influences. Positivism logically explained social phenomena by identifying necessary and sufficient conditions for their occurrence, suggesting that measurable and observable laws govern human behavior and natural phenomena (Siegel, 2023).

In Italy, Cesare Lombroso, often called the “father of criminology,” pioneered the study of criminal anatomy by examining the bodies of executed criminals. He concluded that serious and violent offenders exhibited inherited criminal traits. Lombroso believed these “born criminals” had “atavistic anomalies,” making them physical throwbacks to more primitive human ancestors who were savage, often characterized by large jaws and strong canine teeth (Baum, 2011). While his ideas shaped discussions in the early 20th century, they have fallen out of favor for being deterministic.

1c. Sociological Criminology

While biological perspectives influenced criminology, another group of researchers focused on the social changes in the 19th century. The foundation of sociological criminology can be attributed to Émile Durkheim. Durkheim argued that crime is normal because it is impossible to envision a society without criminal behavior. He believed crime is inevitable due to the vast differences among people and the various methods they use to fulfill their needs. Durkheim suggested that crime can be beneficial, sometimes even necessary, for society as it can lead to social change (Boyd, 2015).

Durkheim discussed the consequences of transitioning from a small, rural society to a modern, urban one, with the division of labor and personal isolation. Due to structural changes, this shift led to anomie, norm, and role confusion. An anomic society experiences moral uncertainty and a loss of traditional values, potentially leading to confusion and rebellion (Boyd, 2015).

Durkheim’s ideas were solidified through research in the early 20th century by scholars at the University of Chicago, creating the approach to criminology known as the Chicago school. These urban sociologists studied how neighborhood conditions, particularly poverty, influenced crime rates. They found that social forces in urban areas created environments conducive to crime, with some neighborhoods becoming “natural areas” for criminal activity (Cumbler, 2005). In these areas, critical social institutions like schools and families were unable to control behavior effectively due to poverty’s disruptive effects, leading to high crime rates.

During the 1930s and 1940s, other sociologists linked criminal behavior to an individual’s socialization and learning, including their relationship to education, family life, and peers. They found that children exposed to conflict-ridden homes, inadequate schools, or deviant peers were more likely to engage in criminal behavior. Many of these ideas argue that individuals learn criminal attitudes from older, more experienced lawbreakers.

1d. Conflict Criminology

Karl Marx, in works like the Communist Manifesto, highlighted the harsh labor conditions of early industrial capitalism. He argued that a society’s mode of production—how it creates and distributes goods—determines its character. In industrial societies, the critical relationship is between the capitalist bourgeoisie (owners of production) and the proletariat (laborers). According to Marx, the economic system dominates all aspects of life, with people’s existence centered around production (Marx, 1867/2004). He believed that the exploitation of the working class would lead to class conflict, ultimately leading to the downfall of capitalism.

Marx’s ideas laid the groundwork for conflict theory, which posits that interpersonal conflict, including crime, influences human behavior. During the social and political turmoil of the 1960s, criminologists examined how social conditions in the United States contributed to class conflict and crime. This era gave rise to critical criminology, which criticizes the economic system for creating conditions that foster a high crime rate. Critical criminologists have remained influential in the field since this time.

1e. Integrative Approaches

Since the 1950s, researchers have begun to seek more comprehensive views of crime causation. These views often combine sociological, psychological, and economic factors to explain why people commit crimes.

These theories often focus on studying known delinquents to identify factors that predict continued criminal behavior. Integrative approaches suggest that the start and persistence of a criminal career are influenced by both internal and external factors.

1f. Contemporary Criminology

Over the past 200 years, various schools of criminology have continually evolved. Classical theory has transformed into modern rational choice theory, which suggests that criminals make rational decisions based on the benefits and costs of committing a crime, as well as the fear of punishment (Siegel, 2023).

Lombroso’s biological positivism has evolved into contemporary biosocial and psychological trait theory, which considers that a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and environmental factors influences criminal behavior. This theory no longer suggests that a single inherited trait can explain criminality but emphasizes the interaction of various factors such as diet, hormones, personality, and intelligence.

The Chicago school’s focus on sociological influences on crime has evolved into social structure theory (Siegel, 2023), which argues that an individual’s position in society’s social structure determines their behavior. Those at the bottom of the social hierarchy, unable to succeed through conventional means, experience strain and frustration, leading to criminal behavior.

The idea that socialization influences criminal behavior remains popular, with social process theorists emphasizing that individuals learn criminal behavior through interaction with and modeling after admired individuals. Some offenders may also turn to crime due to broken social bonds.

Many criminologists still see social and political conflict as the primary cause of crime. Critical criminologists argue that crime is linked to the inherently unfair economic structures of advanced capitalist countries. Meanwhile, feminist criminology is an example of conflict criminology, which looks at the inequalities resulting from patriarchal societies.

Finally, life course theorists focus on identifying the personal traits and social conditions that lead individuals to pursue criminal careers throughout their lives.

big idea

See the chart below to compare the different criminological perspectives we discussed throughout this course.

Perspective	Description
Classical/choice perspectives	Crime results from individuals exercising their free will and making personal choices.
Biological/psychological perspectives	Crime is a function of internal forces, such as neurological, genetic, personality, or mental traits.
Structural perspectives	Crime rates are a function of neighborhood conditions and cultural forces.
Process perspectives	Crime is a function of socialization, including learning or upbringing.
Conflict perspectives	Crime is a function of political or economic forces, such as competition for power.
Integrative/life course perspectives	People change over the course of their lives, and there are many factors that contribute to crime.

REFERENCES

Baum, M. L. (2011). The monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) genetic predisposition to impulsive violence: Is it relevant to criminal trials? Neuroethics, 6(2), 287–306. doi.org/10.1007/s12152-011-9108-6

Boyd, N. (2015). Understanding crime in Canada: An introduction to criminology. Emond Montgomery.

Cadoppi, A. (2015). Cesare Beccaria, John Bessler and the birth of modern criminal law. University of Baltimore Journal of International Law, 3 (2), Article 2. scholarworks.law.ubalt.edu/ubjil/vol3/iss2/2

Cumbler, J. (2005). Northeast and Midwest United States: An environmental history. ABC-CLIO.

Marx, K. (2004). Capital: Volume 1 (B. Fowkes, Trans.). Penguin. (Original work published 1867)

Siegel, L. J. (2023). Criminology (8th ed.). Cengage.